Burukutu Spent Grain Valorisation in Benue State, Nigeria Using Black Soldier Fly Larvae: A Systematic Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.67601/njbls.v3i2a.53Keywords:
Biowaste valorization, Feedstock pretreatment, Larviculture optimization, Nutrient cycling, Sustainable agricultureAbstract
Traditional fermented sorghum- and millet-based drink, called Burukutu, is consumed widely in Benue state, Nigeria, leaving behind significant amounts of spent grain, which are poorly managed and can pollute the environment, release greenhouse gases and pose health risks to humans. Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL; Hermetia illucens) are a promising and ecology friendly process to convert organic wastes to beneficial products. In this review, the potential of BSFL in bioconversion of Burukutu spent grain in the context of a circular bioeconomy is explored. A systematic literature review was done according to the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The studies identified in this review were through five electronic databases searched for publications between January 2000 and May 2026, resulting in 47 articles found relevant for brewery by-products, BSFL performance and nutrient recovery. The substrate composition, larval growth, reduction in waste and the quality of the frass were narratively synthesized. The crude protein content in the Brewery spent grain remained stable during the entire trial, at 15–30% of the substrate, which is appropriate for BSFL production. Essential minerals and the dietary fire content of BSFL were stable, ranging from 50–70% during the entire trial, while suitable for the production of BSFL. The bioconversion rate of BSFL was 50 – 80% waste reduction, with the resulting larvae being over 60% protein, and the frass being rich in nutrients and used as organic fertilizer. Burukutu spent grain is likely to yield the same results considering its nutritional content. On the other hand, additional nutritional characterization, controlled feeding trials and pilot scale trials should be conducted to confirm the technical, economic, and environmental sustainability of its use for sustainable waste management and rural agricultural development.
References
Albalawneh, A., Hasan, H., Alarsan, S. F., Diab, M., Abu Znaimah, S., Sweity, A., ... & Alnaimat, E. (2024). Evaluating the influence of nutrient-rich substrates on the growth and waste reduction efficiency of black soldier fly larvae. Sustainability, 16(22), 9730. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16229730
Anaukwu, C. G., Nwagwu, F. C., Okafor, O. I., Ezemba, C. C., Orji, C. C., Agu, K. C., & Archibong, E. J. (2016). Microbiological analysis of Burukutu beverage produced in southern part of Nigeria. European journal of experimental biology.
Atter, A. (2014). Microbiological and chemical processes associated with the production of burukutu a traditional beer in Ghana. International Food Research Journal. Journal homepage: http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my
Barragan-Fonseca, K. B., Dicke, M., & van Loon, J. J. (2017). Nutritional value of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) and its suitability as animal feed–a review. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 3(2), 105-120. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2016.0055
Barragán-Fonseca, K., Pineda-Mejia, J., Dicke, M., & Van Loon, J. J. (2018). Performance of the black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) on vegetable residue-based diets formulated based on protein and carbohydrate contents. Journal of economic entomology, 111(6), 2676-2683. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toy270
Barrett, M., Chia, S. Y., Fischer, B., & Tomberlin, J. K. (2023). Welfare considerations for farming black soldier flies, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): a model for the insects as food and feed industry. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 9(2), 119-148. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2022.0041
Beesigamukama, D., Mochoge, B., Korir, N. K., Fiaboe, K. K., Nakimbugwe, D., Khamis, F. M., ... & Tanga, C. M. (2021). Low-cost technology for recycling agro-industrial waste into nutrient-rich organic fertilizer using black soldier fly. Waste Management, 119, 183-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.09.043
Beesigamukama, D., Mochoge, B., Korir, N. K., Fiaboe, K. K., Nakimbugwe, D., Khamis, F. M., ... & Tanga, C. M. (2020). Exploring black soldier fly frass as novel fertilizer for improved growth, yield, and nitrogen use efficiency of maize under field conditions. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, 574592. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.574592
Bell, V., Guina, J., & Fernandes, T. H. (2023). African fermented foods and beverages. Potential impact on health. Microbial fermentations in nature and as designed processes, 293-322. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119850007.ch12
Bellezza Oddon, S., Biasato, I., Resconi, A., & Gasco, L. (2024). Black soldier fly life history traits can be influenced by isonutrient-waste-based diets. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 23(1), 331-341. https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2024.2316687
Bianco, A., Budroni, M., Zara, S., Mannazzu, I., Fancello, F., & Zara, G. (2020). The role of microorganisms on biotransformation of brewers’ spent grain. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 104(20), 8661-8678. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-020-10843-1
Bosch, G., Van Zanten, H. H. E., Zamprogna, A., Veenenbos, M., Meijer, N. P., Van der Fels-Klerx, H. J., & Van Loon, J. J. A. (2019). Conversion of organic resources by black soldier fly larvae: Legislation, efficiency and environmental impact. Journal of Cleaner Production, 222, 355-363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.049
Brits, D. (2017). Improving feeding efficiencies of black soldier fly larvae, Hermetia illucens (L., 1758)(Diptera: Stratiomyidae: Hermetiinae) through manipulation of feeding conditions for industrial mass rearing (Doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University).
Butuc, O., Taheri, S., De Leeuw, S., Ronner, E., Lourenço, K. S., Akkerman, R., ... & Slegers, P. M. (2026). System dynamics modelling of black soldier fly larvae composting for organic fertilizer production. Journal of Environmental Management, 405, 129627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2026.129627
Chetrariu, A., & Dabija, A. (2020). Brewer’s spent grains: Possibilities of valorization, a review. Applied Sciences, 10(16), 5619. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10165619
Chia, S. Y., Tanga, C. M., Osuga, I. M., Alaru, A. O., Mwangi, D. M., Githinji, M., Subramanian, S., Fiaboe, K. K. M., Ekesi, S., van Loon, J. J. A., & Dicke, M. (2020). Effect of dietary replacement of fishmeal by insect meal on growth performance, blood profiles and economics of growing pigs. Animals, 10(4), 646. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9100705
Diener, S., Zurbrügg, C., & Tockner, K. (2009). Conversion of organic material by black soldier fly larvae: establishing optimal feeding rates. Waste management & research, 27(6), 603-610. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X09103838
Diener, S., Studt Solano, N. M., Roa Gutiérrez, F., Zurbrügg, C., & Tockner, K. (2011). Biological treatment of municipal organic waste using black soldier fly larvae. Waste and biomass valorization, 2(4), 357-363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-011-9079-1
Dri, M., Canfora, P., Antonopoulos, I. S., & Gaudillat, P. (2018). Best environmental management practice for the waste management sector. JRC Science for Policy Report. doi:10.2760/50247
Egemba, K. C., & Etuk, V. E. (2007). A kinetic study of burukutu fermentation. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20093317700
El Deen, S. N., van Rozen, K., Elissen, H., van Wikselaar, P., Fodor, I., van der Weide, R., ... & Veldkamp, T. (2023). Bioconversion of different waste streams of animal and vegetal origin and manure by black soldier fly larvae Hermetia illucens L.(Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Insects, 14(2), 204. PMC9968099. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects14020204
Fărcaș, A. C., Socaci, S. A., Nemeș, S. A., Salanță, L. C., Chiș, M. S., Pop, C. R., ... & Vodnar, D. C. (2022). Cereal waste valorization through conventional and current extraction techniques—an up-to-date overview. Foods, 11(16), 2454. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11162454
Ferronato, N., & Torretta, V. (2019). Waste mismanagement in developing countries: A review of global issues. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(6), 1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060
Gasco, L., Biancarosa, I., & Liland, N. S. (2020). From waste to feed: A review of recent knowledge on insects as producers of protein and fat for animal feeds. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 23, 67-79. 10.1016/j.cogsc.2020.03.003
Gasco, L., Acuti, G., Bani, P., Dalle Zotte, A., Danieli, P. P., De Angelis, A., Fortina, R., Marino, R., Parisi, G., Piccolo, G., Pinotti, L., Prandini, A., Schiavone, A., Terova, G., Tulli, F., & Roncarati, A. (2020). Insect and fish by-products as sustainable alternatives in animal nutrition. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 19(1), 360–372. https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2020.1743209
Gold, M., Tomberlin, J. K., Diener, S., Zurbrügg, C., & Mathys, A. (2018). Decomposition of biowaste macronutrients, microbes, and chemicals in black soldier fly larval treatment: A review. Waste Management, 82, 302-318. 10.1016/j.wasman.2018.10.022
Gold, M., Cassar, C. M., Zurbrügg, C., Kreuzer, M., Boulos, S., Diener, S., & Mathys, A. (2020). Biowaste treatment with black soldier fly larvae: Increasing performance through the formulation of biowastes based on protein and carbohydrates. Waste Management, 102, 319-329. 10.1016/j.wasman.2019.10.036
Haddaway, N. R., Page, M. J., Pritchard, C. C., & McGuinness, L. A. (2022). PRISMA2020: An R package and Shiny app for producing PRISMA 2020‐compliant flow diagrams, with interactivity for optimised digital transparency and Open Synthesis. Campbell systematic reviews, 18(2), e1230. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1230
Ibitoye, O., Ebenebe, C., Amobi, M., Oyediji, T., Ogundele, O., & Arabanbi, I. (2021). Edible insects for food and feed in nigeria: exploring the roles of extension services. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 41(3), 2287-2296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-021-00589-2
Ikram, S., Huang, L., Zhang, H., Wang, J., & Yin, M. (2017). Composition and nutrient value proposition of brewers spent grain. Journal of food science, 82(10), 2232-2242. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.13794
Iqbal, W., Elahi, U., Zhang, H. J., Ahmad, S., Usman, M., & Yaqoob, M. U. (2025). Clean and green bioconversion–a comprehensive review on black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae for converting organic wastes to quality products. Annals of Animal Science, 25(1), 57-81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/aoas-2024-0046
Jackowski, M., Niedźwiecki, Ł., Jagiełło, K., Uchańska, O., & Trusek, A. (2020). Brewer’s spent grains—valuable beer industry by-product. Biomolecules, 10(12), 1669. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom10121669
Jin, Z., Lan, Y., Ohm, J. B., Gillespie, J., Schwarz, P., & Chen, B. (2022). Physicochemical composition, fermentable sugars, free amino acids, phenolics, and minerals in brewers' spent grains obtained from craft brewing operations. Journal of Cereal Science, 104, 103413. 10.1016/j.jcs.2022.103413
Jucker, C., Leonardi, M. G., Rigamonti, I., Lupi, D., & Savoldelli, S. (2019). Brewery’s waste streams as a valuable substrate for Black Soldier Fly Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Journal of Entomological and Acarological Research, 51(2), 87-94. https://doi.org/10.4081/jear.2019.8876
Kasima, J. S., Mugonola, B., Menya, E., Ndaula, S., & Ndyomugyenyi, E. K. (2025). Black soldier flies as a latent driver to attaining selected SDGs in a developing country context-the case of Uganda. Sustainable Environment, 11(1), 2478704. https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2025.2478704
Kaza, S., Yao, L., Bhada-Tata, P., & Van Woerden, F. (2018). What a waste 2.0: a global snapshot of solid waste management to 2050. World Bank Publications. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1329-0
Kintl, A., Hammerschmiedt, T., Vítěz, T., Brtnický, M., Vejražka, K., Huňady, I., ... & Elbl, J. (2023). Possibility of using tannins to control greenhouse gas production during digestate storage. Waste Management, 156, 75-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.11.025
Klammsteiner, T., Turan, V., Fernández-Delgado Juárez, M., Oberegger, S., & Insam, H. (2020). Suitability of black soldier fly frass as soil amendment and implication for organic waste hygienization. Agronomy, 10(10), 1578. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10101578
Klammsteiner, T., Walter, A., Bogataj, T., Heussler, C. D., Stres, B., Steiner, F. M., ... & Insam, H. (2020). The core gut microbiome of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae raised on low-bioburden diets. Frontiers in Microbiology, 11, 993. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.00993
Kolawole, O. M., Kayode, R. M. O., & Akinduyo, B. (2007). Proximate and microbial analyses of burukutu and pito produced in Ilorin, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology, 6(5), 587. http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB
Krupa-Kozak, U., Drabińska, N., Rosell, C. M., Piłat, B., Starowicz, M., Jeliński, T., & Szmatowicz, B. (2020). High-quality gluten-free sponge cakes without sucrose: Inulin-type fructans as sugar alternatives. Foods, 9(12), 1735. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9121735
Kumar, A., Singh, A., & Kumari, K. (2025). Analyzing the Agronomic, Environmental, and Techno-Economic Benefits of BSF Farming. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-025-03388-9
Lalander, C. D. S. Z., Diener, S., Zurbrügg, C., & Vinnerås, B. (2019). Effects of feedstock on larval development and process efficiency in waste treatment with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Journal of cleaner production, 208, 211-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.017
Lalowski, P., Kruk, M., Salman, M. U. H. A. M. M. A. D., & Trząskowska, M. O. N. I. K. A. (2024). Prebiotic properties of brewer's spent grain–literature review. Żywność Nauka Technologia Jakość, 31(3), 69-81. https://doi.org/10.15193/zntj/2024/140/510
Li Q., Zheng, L., Cai, H., Garza, E., Yu, Z., & Zhou, S. (2011). From organic waste to biodiesel: Black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, makes it feasible. Fuel, 90(4), 1545-1548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2010.11.016
Maalouf, A., & Mavropoulos, A. (2023). Re-assessing global municipal solid waste generation. Waste Management & Research, 41(4), 936-947. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X221074116
Madilo, F. K., Parry-Hanson Kunadu, A., Tano-Debrah, K., Saalia, F. K., & Kolanisi, U. (2024). Diversity of Production Techniques and Microbiology of African Cereal‐Based Traditional Fermented Beverages. Journal of food quality, 2024(1), 1241614. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/1241614
Makkar, H. P. S. (2018). Feed demand landscape and implications of food-not feed strategy for food security and climate change. Animal, 12(8), 1744-1754. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S175173111700324X
Memon, F. U., Li, C., Ahmad, S., Cui, Y., Feng, X., Zeng, P., ... & Tian, L. (2025). Efficiency of microbial fermentation on microbial shifts, enzymatic activity, and transcriptions in black soldier fly larvae during the sugarcane waste conversion. Environmental Pollution, 381, 126588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2025.126588
Meneguz, M., Schiavone, A., Gai, F., Dama, A., Lussiana, C., Renna, M., & Gasco, L. (2018). Effect of rearing substrate on growth performance, waste reduction efficiency and chemical composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 98(15), 5776-5784. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.9127
Mertenat, A., Diener, S., & Zurbrügg, C. (2019). Black Soldier Fly biowaste treatment–Assessment of global warming potential. Waste management, 84, 173-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.11.040
Mihalca, V., Kerezsi, A. D., Weber, A., Gruber-Traub, C., Schmucker, J., Vodnar, D. C., ... & Pop, O. L. (2021). Protein-based films and coatings for food industry applications. Polymers, 13(5), 769. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13050769
Mihiretu, A., Assefa, N., & Wubet, A. (2024). Bridging Sorghum Yield Gap Through Up-Scaling Improved Technology in Wag-Himira Zone, Ethiopia. Agro Bali: Agricultural Journal, 6(3), 516-523. DOI: https://doi.org/10.37637/ab.v6i3.1117
Mohod, A. V., & Bagal, M. V. (2023). Technological developments in the energy generation from municipal solid waste (landfill gas capture, combustion, pyrolysis and gasification). In 360-Degree Waste Management, Volume 1 (pp. 139-157). Elsevier. 10.1016/B978-0-323-90760-6.00005-9
Mussatto, S. I., Fernandes, M., & Roberto, I. C. (2007). Lignin recovery from brewer’s spent grain black liquor. Carbohydrate Polymers, 70(2), 218-223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2007.03.021
Muurmann, A. T., Eriksen, N. T., Rasmussen, J. A., Limborg, M. T., Tomberlin, J. K., Gilbert, M. T. P., & Bahrndorff, S. (2025). Growth and metabolic performance of house fly and black soldier fly larvae differ across densities and waste-based growth substrates. Waste Management, 193, 529-538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2024.12.031
Nwale, M. M. (2014). Microbiological quality and safety of the Zambian fermented cereal beverage: Chibwantu (Doctoral dissertation, University of the Free State).
Obot, I. S. (2000). The measurement of drinking patterns and alcohol problems in Nigeria. Journal of substance abuse, 12(1-2), 169-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-3289(00)00047-X
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., ... & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. bmj, 372. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
Parodi, A., Gerrits, W. J., Van Loon, J. J., De Boer, I. J., Aarnink, A. J., & Van Zanten, H. H. (2021). Black soldier fly reared on pig manure: Bioconversion efficiencies, nutrients in the residual material, greenhouse gas and ammonia emissions. Waste Management, 126, 674-683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.04.001
Peguero, D. A., Gold, M., Vandeweyer, D., Zurbrügg, C., & Mathys, A. (2022). A review of pretreatment methods to improve agri-food waste bioconversion by black soldier fly larvae. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 5, 745894. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.745894
Popay, J., Roberts, H., Sowden, A., Petticrew, M., Arai, L., Rodgers, M., ... & Duffy, S. (2006). Guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic reviews. A product from the ESRC methods programme Version, 1(1), b92.
Rehman, K. U., Hollah, C., Wiesotzki, K., Rehman, R. U., Rehman, A. U., Zhang, J., ... & Aganovic, K. (2023). Black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens as a potential innovative and environmentally friendly tool for organic waste management: A mini-review. Waste Management & Research, 41(1), 81-97. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X221105441
Resconi, A., Oddon, S. B., Ferrocino, I., Loiotine, Z., Caimi, C., Gasco, L., & Biasato, I. (2024). Effects of brewery by-products on growth performance, bioconversion efficiency, nutritional profile, and microbiota and mycobiota of black soldier fly larvae. animal, 18(9), 101288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.animal.2024.101288
Salomon, M. J., Cavagnaro, T. R., & Burton, R. A. (2025). Potential of black soldier fly larvae frass (BSFL) as a novel fertilizer: impacts on tomato growth, nutrient uptake, and mycorrhizal formation. Plant and Soil, 513(1), 417-434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-024-07187-4
Salomone, R., Saija, G., Mondello, G., Giannetto, A., Fasulo, S., & Savastano, D. (2017). Environmental impact of food waste bioconversion by insects: application of life cycle assessment to process using Hermetia illucens. Journal of Cleaner Production, 140, 890-905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.154
Santos, C. C., Dannon, E. A., Tchoumi, H. H. B., Mbokou, S. F., Afoha, S. A. E., Mignouna, D., ... & Djouaka, R. (2026). Black soldier fly frass as a sustainable organic fertilizer: enhancing productivity of leafy vegetables and soil health in Benin. Frontiers in Plant Science, 16, 1663593. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2025.1663593
Scala, A., Cammack, J. A., Salvia, R., Scieuzo, C., Franco, A., Bufo, S. A., ... & Falabella, P. (2020). Rearing substrate impacts growth and macronutrient composition of Hermetia illucens (L.)(Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae produced at an industrial scale. Scientific reports, 10(1), 19448. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76571-8
Schumann, M., & Brinker, A. (2020). Understanding and managing suspended solids in intensive salmonid aquaculture: a review. Reviews in Aquaculture, 12(4), 2109-2139. https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12425
Siddiqui, S. A., Ristow, B., Rahayu, T., Putra, N. S., Yuwono, N. W., Mategeko, B., ... & Nagdalian, A. (2022). Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) and their affinity for organic waste processing. Waste Management, 140, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.01.008
Smetana, S., Aganovic, K., Irmscher, S., & Heinz, V. (2018). Agri-food waste streams utilization for development of more sustainable food substitutes. In Designing sustainable technologies, products and policies: From science to innovation (pp. 145-155). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66981-6_17
Song, S., Ee, A. W. L., Tan, J. K. N., Cheong, J. C., Chiam, Z., Arora, S., ... & Tan, H. T. W. (2021). Upcycling food waste using black soldier fly larvae: Effects of further composting on frass quality, fertilising effect and its global warming potential. Journal of Cleaner Production, 288, 125664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125664
Spranghers, T., Ottoboni, M., Klootwijk, C., Ovyn, A., Deboosere, S., De Meulenaer, B., ... & De Smet, S. (2017). Nutritional composition of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae reared on different organic waste substrates. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 97(8), 2594-2600. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.8081
Su, H., Zhang, B., Shi, J., He, S., Dai, S., Zhao, Z., ... & Li, J. (2025). Black soldier fly larvae as a novel protein feed resource promoting circular economy in agriculture. Insects, 16(8), 830. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16080830
Surendra, K. C., Olivier, R., Tomberlin, J. K., Jha, R., & Khanal, S. K. (2016). Bioconversion of organic wastes into biodiesel and animal feed via insect farming. Renewable energy, 98, 197-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.03.022
Surendra, K. C., Tomberlin, J. K., van Huis, A., Cammack, J. A., Heckmann, L. H. L., & Khanal, S. K. (2020). Rethinking organic wastes bioconversion: Evaluating the potential of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens (L.))(Diptera: Stratiomyidae)(BSF). Waste Management, 117, 58-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.050
Tariq, M. R., Liu, S., Wang, F., Wang, H., Mo, Q., Zhuang, Z., ... & Li, C. (2025). Black soldier fly: a keystone species for the future of sustainable waste management and nutritional resource development: a review. Insects, 16(8), 750. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16080750
Tschirner, M., & Simon, A. (2015). Influence of different growing substrates and processing on the nutrient composition of black soldier fly larvae destined for animal feed. Journal of insects as food and feed, 1(4), 249-259. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2014.0008
Universa, A. E., Banis, A., Kince, T., Kruma, Z., & Dabina-Bicka, I. (2025). Nutritional Characterization of Brewer’s Spent Grains Depending on Brewery Scale and Beer Production Technology. Foods, 14(23), 4052. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14234052
Van Huis, A. (2013). Potential of insects as food and feed in assuring food security. Annual review of entomology, 58, 563-583. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153704
Van Huis, A. (2020). Insects as food and feed, a new emerging agricultural sector: a review. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 6(1), 27-44. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2019.0017
Virdi, A. S., Mahajan, A., Devraj, M., & Sanghi, R. (2025). Brewers' spent grains: Techno-functional challenges and opportunity in the valorization for food products. LWT, 227, 117785. 10.1016/j.lwt.2025.117785
Wang, X., Wang, R., Wei, J., Hu, R., Wang, Z., Li, H., & Li, M. (2026). Conversion of wheat straw by black soldier fly larvae and fertilization effects of frass. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 102527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2026.102527
Wang, Y. S., & Shelomi, M. (2017). Review of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) as animal feed and human food. Foods, 6(10), 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods6100091
Wu, N., Yu, X., Liang, J., Mao, Z., Ma, Y., Wang, Z., ... & Xu, X. (2023). A full recycling chain of food waste with straw addition mediated by black soldier fly larvae: Focus on fresh frass quality, secondary composting, and its fertilizing effect on maize. Science of The Total Environment, 885, 163386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163386
Yatoo, A. M., Hamid, B., Sheikh, T. A., Ali, S., Bhat, S. A., Ramola, S., ... & Kumar, S. (2024). Global perspective of municipal solid waste and landfill leachate: generation, composition, eco-toxicity, and sustainable management strategies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(16), 23363-23392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32669-4
Yuhardi, E., Suryawati, S., Nisa, S., & Rahman, F. A. (2026, April). Nutritional testing of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) frass as solid organic fertilizer in sandy soil media in Bangkalan. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 1616, No. 1, p. 012012). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1616/1/012012
Zhang, Z., Jiang, S., Sun, J., Chinese, X., & Shen, K. (2024). Co-treatment of agri-food waste streams using black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens L.): A sustainable solution for rural waste management. Available at SSRN 4830465. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4830465
